Ögedei Khan was the second great khan of the Mongol Empire, the successor of Genghis Khan, and the ruler under whom the Mongol Empire reached most of its maximum territorial extent. He was the third son of Genghis Khan, born around 1186, and he was designated as Genghis Khan’s successor at a kurultai held shortly before the latter’s death in 1227. Ögedei was elected great khan at a kurultai in 1229, and he ruled the empire until his death in 1241.
Ögedei is one of the most important figures in Mongol history. Under his rule, the Mongol armies conquered Russia, Eastern Europe, the Caucasus, Persia, much of the Middle East, Korea, and parts of China. The Mongol postal system, the yam, was expanded into a continental network under his rule, and the foundations of the Mongol administrative system were laid. The empire that Ögedei ruled was, in territorial extent, the largest empire the world had ever seen, and his reign was the high-water mark of the unified Mongol state.
The Early Life of Ögedei
Ögedei was born around 1186, the third son of Genghis Khan by his principal wife Börte. As a young man, Ögedei participated in the wars of unification of the Mongol tribes, and he distinguished himself as a military commander in the campaigns against the Khwarezmian Empire in 1219-1221. Ögedei was reportedly a more thoughtful and less aggressive commander than his brothers, and his father is said to have praised him for his ability to keep his subordinates in good order.
Genghis Khan had originally intended to designate his fourth son, Tolui, as his successor, but Tolui, who was the youngest of the four brothers, was passed over in favor of Ögedei. The decision was based on a number of factors, including Ögedei’s military ability, his political prudence, and his willingness to follow his father’s wishes. The designation of Ögedei as the successor was confirmed at a kurultai held shortly before Genghis Khan’s death in 1227, and the actual election of Ögedei took place at a kurultai in 1229.
The Reign of Ögedei
Ögedei was elected great khan at a kurultai in 1229, two years after the death of Genghis Khan. The delay was the result of a number of political considerations, including the need to consult with the various branches of the imperial family and the need to settle a number of outstanding political questions.
Ögedei’s reign was marked by a series of major military campaigns. The first major campaign was the invasion of the Jin Dynasty in northern China, which was completed in 1234 with the help of the Song Dynasty. The second major campaign was the invasion of Korea, which was eventually made a Mongol vassal. The third major campaign was the invasion of Persia and the Caucasus, which was launched in 1230 and was eventually completed with the conquest of the Abbasid Caliphate in Baghdad in 1258. The fourth major campaign was the invasion of Europe, which was launched in 1236 and which resulted in the conquest of Russia, Poland, and Hungary.
The most consequential of these campaigns was the invasion of Europe. The invasion was led by Batu Khan, the grandson of Genghis Khan, and it resulted in the conquest of the Russian principalities, the Battle of Legnica in Silesia, and the Battle of Mohi in Hungary. The Mongol armies had reached the gates of Vienna and were preparing to invade Western Europe when news of the death of Ögedei reached them, and they withdrew from Europe to attend the kurultai that would elect a new great khan.
The Administrative Achievements of Ögedei
Ögedei was also an important administrative reformer. Under his rule, the Mongol postal system, the yam, was expanded into a continental network connecting the far ends of the empire. The system was based on a series of way stations, located at intervals of roughly twenty-five to thirty miles, where riders on imperial business could find fresh horses, lodging, and food. The system made it possible to travel across the empire with unprecedented speed, and it was a major factor in the success of the Mongol administration.
Ögedei also established a system of taxation and census that became the basis of the Mongol imperial administration. The system was based on a number of Chinese and Persian administrative models, but it was adapted to the needs of the Mongol state. The system included a regular census of the population, a regular assessment of the taxes, and a system of tax collectors who were responsible for collecting the taxes and remitting them to the central treasury. The system was later adopted by the Yuan Dynasty and the other khanates.
Ögedei also established a number of major cities as centers of imperial administration. The most important of these was the city of Karakorum, which Ögedei established as the capital of the Mongol Empire. Karakorum was a major city in the heartland of Mongolia, and it was a center of trade, administration, and culture. The city was home to a number of major religious and cultural institutions, including Buddhist monasteries, Muslim mosques, Christian churches, and Confucian temples. The city was also a major center of trade, with merchants from all over Eurasia visiting the city to conduct business.
The Death of Ögedei
Ögedei died on 11 December 1241, while on a hunting trip near the Orkhon River. The cause of his death is not entirely clear, but it was probably a combination of alcoholism (Ögedei was known to be a heavy drinker) and the strain of overwork. His death was a major blow to the Mongol Empire, and the succession crisis that followed was the first major political crisis of the unified Mongol state. The kurultai that should have elected a new great khan was delayed for several years by internal squabbles, and the empire was effectively leaderless until the election of Güyük Khan in 1246.
The Legacy of Ögedei
Ögedei was one of the most important figures in the history of the Mongol Empire. Under his rule, the empire reached most of its maximum territorial extent, and the administrative foundations of the empire were laid. The yam postal system, the imperial census, and the system of imperial taxation were all established under his rule, and they remained the basis of the Mongol imperial administration for the next century.
Ögedei was also an important patron of culture. He was a patron of the arts, and he is reported to have maintained a large collection of painters, musicians, and poets at his court. He was also a patron of religion, and he is reported to have established a number of Buddhist monasteries, Muslim mosques, Christian churches, and Confucian temples in his capital at Karakorum. The patronage of culture and religion was an important part of the Mongol imperial tradition, and it was continued by Ögedei’s successors.
Sources
- David Morgan, The Mongols (2nd ed., Oxford, 2007).
- Peter Jackson, The Mongols and the West, 1221–1410 (London, 2005).
- Timothy May, The Mongol Conquests in World History (London, 2012).