The Mongols practiced a complex mixture of shamanism, ancestor worship, and the worship of the eternal blue sky, Tengri. The religion was a central feature of Mongol life, and it was a major factor in the political and military success of the Mongols. The Mongols were famously tolerant of other religions, and they made no attempt to convert the peoples that they conquered. The religious toleration of the Mongols was a major feature of the Mongol state, and it was one of the keys to the success of the Mongol Empire.
The most important of the religious traditions was Tengriism, the worship of Tengri, the eternal blue sky. Tengri was the supreme deity of the Mongol pantheon, and he was the creator of the world and the source of all power. The Mongols believed that the khan was the chosen of Tengri, and that the khan’s authority came from Tengri.
Tengriism
The central feature of the Mongol religion was the worship of Tengri, the eternal blue sky. Tengri was the supreme deity of the Mongol pantheon, and he was the creator of the world and the source of all power. The Mongols believed that the khan was the chosen of Tengri, and that the khan’s authority came from Tengri.
The worship of Tengri was not exclusive. The Mongols also worshipped a number of other deities, including the earth mother, called Eje, and a variety of local spirits, called “ezen.” The Mongols also believed in a number of supernatural beings, including dragons, serpents, and other mythical creatures. The Mongols also believed in the existence of a spirit world, where the souls of the dead lived on after death.
The worship of Tengri was performed in a variety of rituals, including the offering of sacrifices, the chanting of prayers, and the performance of dances. The most important of the rituals was the annual offering to Tengri, which was performed at the beginning of the year, and which was attended by the khan and the major nobles.
Shamanism
The second central feature of the Mongol religion was shamanism. The shamans, called bökö, were the religious specialists of the Mongol people, and they played a major role in the religious and political life of the community. The shamans were believed to have the power to communicate with the spirits, to predict the future, and to intercede with the unseen powers.
The shamans were typically chosen by the spirits, and the choice was often marked by a period of illness or other unusual experiences. The chosen person was then trained by an experienced shaman, and the training typically lasted for several years. The training included the learning of the rituals, the chants, and the dances that were central to the shamanic tradition.
The shamans were important figures in the political life of the Mongols, and they often played a major role in the decisions of the khan. The most famous of the Mongol shamans was Kökechin, the shaman who predicted the rise of Genghis Khan and who was an important adviser of the great khan.
Ancestor Worship
The third central feature of the Mongol religion was ancestor worship. The Mongols believed that the spirits of the dead continued to exist after death, and that the spirits could influence the lives of the living. The Mongols therefore performed a variety of rituals to honor the dead, including the offering of food and drink, the burning of incense, and the recitation of prayers.
The most important of the ancestor rituals was the annual offering to the ancestors, which was performed at the beginning of the year, and which was attended by the family. The offering was typically led by the senior member of the family, and it included the recitation of the names of the ancestors and the offering of food and drink.
The Mongols also believed that the spirits of the great khans and heroes were particularly powerful, and that the spirits could be invoked for help in times of need. The most famous of the ancestral spirits was the spirit of Genghis Khan, who was widely venerated as a national hero and a divine figure.
The Adoption of Buddhism
The most important of the foreign religions adopted by the Mongols was Buddhism, which was adopted by the Mongol ruling class in the late thirteenth century. The most important of the Buddhist converts was Kublai Khan, who was a major patron of Tibetan Buddhism and who established a Buddhist monastery in Beijing. The conversion of the Mongols to Buddhism was a major turning point in the history of the Mongol world, and it marked the beginning of a long process of cultural assimilation that eventually led to the integration of the Mongols into the cultures of the conquered peoples.
The adoption of Buddhism was largely a political decision, taken in order to win the support of the Buddhist majority of the population of China and Tibet. The adoption of Buddhism was also a reflection of the personal religious interests of Kublai Khan, who was a devout Buddhist and who was a major patron of the Buddhist monasteries of the empire. The adoption of Buddhism was also a major factor in the cultural assimilation of the Mongols, and it marked the beginning of the integration of the Mongols into the Chinese cultural world.
The Adoption of Islam
The Mongols also came into contact with Islam, which was the religion of many of the peoples of Central Asia and the Middle East. The Mongols were generally tolerant of Islam, and the Ilkhanate eventually converted to Islam in the late thirteenth century. The conversion of the Ilkhanate to Islam was a major turning point in the history of the Mongol world, and it marked the beginning of the integration of the western khanate into the Islamic world.
The adoption of Islam was largely a political decision, taken in order to win the support of the Muslim majority of the population of Persia and the Middle East. The adoption of Islam was also a reflection of the personal religious interests of several of the Ilkhans, including Ghazan, who was a devout Muslim and who was a major patron of the Islamic institutions of the empire. The adoption of Islam was also a major factor in the cultural assimilation of the Ilkhanate, and it marked the beginning of the integration of the Mongols into the Persian cultural world.
Sources
- Jack Weatherford, The Secret History of the Mongol Queens (New York, 2010).
- Anatoly M. Khazanov, Nomads and the Outside World (2nd ed., Madison, 1994).
- David Morgan, The Mongols (2nd ed., Oxford, 2007).