Möngke Khan, the eldest son of Tolui and the grandson of Genghis Khan, was the fourth great khan of the Mongol Empire, ruling from 1251 to 1259. He was elected at a kurultai in 1251, in an election that was strongly supported by the Toluid princes and that has been widely regarded as a Toluid coup. The election marked the beginning of Toluid dominance in the imperial politics, and it set the stage for the Toluid Civil War of 1260-1264.
Möngke was an able and determined ruler, and his reign was marked by a series of major military campaigns, including the conquest of the Abbasid Caliphate in Baghdad, the invasion of Europe (the second wave of the Mongol invasion of Eastern Europe, including the campaigns of 1241-1242 and 1259-1260), and the campaign against the Song Dynasty in southern China. Möngke was also an important administrative reformer, and he expanded the imperial administration and improved the postal system.
The Early Life of Möngke
Möngke was born around 1209, the eldest son of Tolui, the fourth son of Genghis Khan. Tolui was the favorite of Genghis Khan, and he played an important role in the military campaigns of the empire, including the campaign against the Khwarezmian Empire and the campaign against the Western Xia. Möngke grew up in the imperial household and received the traditional education of a Mongol prince.
Möngke was reportedly a serious, thoughtful, and pious man, with a strong interest in religion and culture. He was reportedly a follower of Tibetan Buddhism, and he was an important patron of the Buddhist monasteries of the Mongol Empire. He was also a follower of Mongol shamanism, and he is reported to have maintained a close relationship with the shamans of the imperial court.
Möngke was a capable military commander, and he played an important role in the military campaigns of the empire before his election as great khan. He participated in the campaign against the Jin Dynasty in northern China in the 1230s, and he led several important military expeditions in the 1240s and 1250s.
The Election of Möngke
The election of Möngke in 1251 was a major political event. The succession to the throne of the Mongol Empire had been a contested issue since the death of Ögedei in 1241, and the election of Güyük in 1246 had not resolved the underlying tensions. The Toluid branch of the family, led by Tolui’s widow Sorghaghtani Beki, had been maneuvering for years to install one of her sons on the throne, and the election of Möngke in 1251 was the culmination of these efforts.
The election was held at a kurultai in 1251, and it was attended by representatives of all the major branches of the imperial family. The election was strongly supported by the Toluid princes, and it was opposed by the Ögedeid and Chagataid branches. The election was, in effect, a Toluid coup, and it was the first major step in the long process that led to the Toluid Civil War of 1260-1264.
The election of Möngke was also significant for the role that his mother, Sorghaghtani Beki, played in the political life of the Mongol court. Sorghaghtani was a Nestorian Christian, and she was one of the most important women in the history of the Mongol Empire. She was the wife of Tolui, the mother of Möngke, Kublai, Hulagu, and Ariq Böke, and she was a major figure in the political, religious, and cultural life of the Mongol world.
The Reign of Möngke
The reign of Möngke was marked by a series of major military campaigns. The first major campaign was the invasion of the Song Dynasty in southern China, which was launched in 1257 and which was the largest of the Mongol campaigns against the Song. The campaign was led by Möngke himself, and it was during the campaign that Möngke fell ill and died.
The second major campaign was the invasion of the Abbasid Caliphate in Baghdad, which was led by Möngke’s brother Hulagu. The campaign was launched in 1257, and it culminated in the sack of Baghdad in 1258. The sack of Baghdad was one of the most significant events of the thirteenth century, and it marked the end of the Abbasid Caliphate, which had been a major power in the Islamic world for five centuries.
The third major campaign was the second wave of the invasion of Eastern Europe, which was led by Möngke’s nephew Berke. The campaign was launched in 1259, and it was the second major Mongol invasion of the Russian principalities. The campaign was less successful than the first invasion, and it was eventually abandoned when Möngke died in 1259.
The Death of Möngke
Möngke died on 11 August 1259, while on campaign in southern China. The cause of his death is not entirely clear, but it was probably a combination of illness and the strain of the campaign. His death was a major blow to the Mongol Empire, and the succession crisis that followed was the central political event of the mid-thirteenth century.
The succession crisis was eventually resolved by the Toluid Civil War of 1260-1264, in which Möngke’s brother Kublai defeated another brother, Ariq Böke, and established the Toluid line as the ruling line of the empire. The civil war was a major turning point in the history of the Mongol Empire, and it marked the beginning of the era of the four khanates.
The Legacy of Möngke
Möngke is remembered as one of the most important rulers in the history of the Mongol Empire. He was an able and determined ruler, and he presided over a major expansion of the empire. He was also an important administrative reformer, and he laid the foundations of the Mongol imperial administration that would be the basis of the empire for the next century and a half.
The legacy of Möngke is also visible in the religious traditions of the Mongol world. Möngke was a follower of Tibetan Buddhism, and he was an important patron of the Buddhist monasteries of the Mongol Empire. The patronage of Buddhism was an important part of the Mongol imperial tradition, and it was continued by Möngke’s successors, particularly Kublai, who was a major patron of Tibetan Buddhism.
Sources
- John Man, Genghis Khan: Life, Death and Legacy (London, 2004).
- Igor de Rachewiltz, ed., The Secret History of the Mongols (2 vols., Brill, 2004–2013).
- Paul Ratchnevsky, Genghis Khan: His Life and Legacy (Oxford, 1991).