The Mongols were masters of siege warfare, and they used a wide variety of siege weapons in the course of their conquests. The Mongols were not, at the beginning of their conquests, expert at siege warfare, but they quickly learned the art from the Chinese and the Muslims. The Mongols recruited engineers and craftsmen from the conquered peoples, and they used a wide variety of siege weapons, including catapults, ballistas, battering rams, siege towers, and (after the conquest of the Song Dynasty) gunpowder weapons.
The Mongol siege weapons were a major factor in the success of the Mongol conquests, and they were one of the keys to the ability of the Mongols to take even the most heavily fortified cities. The siege weapons were designed and built by engineers recruited from the conquered peoples, particularly the Chinese and the Muslims, and they were operated by soldiers who were trained in the use of the weapons.
The Trebuchet
The most famous of the Mongol siege weapons was the trebuchet, a large counterweight catapult that could hurl heavy stones at the walls of a besieged city. The trebuchet was a Chinese invention, and it had been used in China for centuries before the Mongol conquest. The Mongols adopted the trebuchet in the early thirteenth century, and they used it with devastating effect in the sieges of Bukhara, Samarkand, and Merv.
The trebuchet was a major innovation of the Mongol siege warfare. The trebuchet was capable of hurling stones of up to 200 kg at distances of up to 200 meters, and it was one of the most effective weapons against the walls of a fortified city. The trebuchet was also a powerful psychological weapon, and the sound of the stones hitting the walls of a city was often enough to convince the defenders to surrender.
The Mangonel
The second most famous of the Mongol siege weapons was the mangonel, a torsion-powered catapult that could hurl stones or incendiaries at the walls of a besieged city. The mangonel was an Islamic invention, and it had been used in the Middle East for centuries before the Mongol conquest. The Mongols adopted the mangonel in the early thirteenth century, and they used it with devastating effect in the sieges of Baghdad, Aleppo, and Damascus.
The mangonel was a major innovation of the Mongol siege warfare. The mangonel was capable of hurling stones of up to 50 kg at distances of up to 100 meters, and it was particularly effective against the wooden structures of a fortified city. The mangonel was also a powerful psychological weapon, and the sound of the stones hitting the walls of a city was often enough to convince the defenders to surrender.
The Battering Ram
The third most famous of the Mongol siege weapons was the battering ram, a heavy log that could be swung against the gates of a city. The battering ram was a simple but effective weapon, and it had been used in warfare for thousands of years before the Mongol conquest. The Mongols adopted the battering ram, and they used it with devastating effect in the sieges of many of the cities that they conquered.
The battering ram was typically covered with a wooden or metal shield to protect the operators from the defenders’ arrows, and it was typically suspended from a wooden frame so that it could be swung with greater force. The battering ram was a major innovation of the Mongol siege warfare, and it was one of the most effective weapons against the gates of a fortified city.
The Siege Tower
The fourth most famous of the Mongol siege weapons was the siege tower, a tall wooden structure that could be moved up to the walls of a besieged city. The siege tower was used to allow the attackers to shoot down on the defenders, and it was a major advantage in attacking fortified cities. The Mongols adopted the siege tower from the Chinese, and they used it with devastating effect in the sieges of many of the cities that they conquered.
The siege tower was typically several stories tall, and it was equipped with a drawbridge that could be lowered onto the walls of a city once the tower was in position. The siege tower was covered with a wooden or metal shield to protect the operators from the defenders’ arrows, and it was typically moved into position by a team of oxen or by a system of ropes and pulleys.
The Gunpowder Weapons
The fifth most famous of the Mongol siege weapons were the gunpowder weapons, including fire lances, bombs, and rockets. The Chinese had developed gunpowder in the ninth century, and the Mongols adopted the technology after the conquest of the Song Dynasty in southern China. The Mongols used gunpowder weapons in a wide variety of ways, and they were one of the first armies to use gunpowder in warfare.
The most famous of the Mongol gunpowder weapons was the huo pao, or “fire bomb,” a ceramic or metal shell filled with gunpowder and shrapnel. The huo pao was used to attack fortified positions, and it was a major advantage in siege warfare. The Mongols also used the huo chong, a kind of gunpowder-powered fire lance that could project a jet of flame at the enemy.
The Siege Engineers
The Mongol siege engineers were among the most skilled in the medieval world. The engineers were drawn from the conquered peoples, particularly the Chinese, the Muslims, and the Christians, and they were responsible for the design, construction, and operation of the siege weapons. The engineers were highly valued by the Mongol commanders, and they were often given positions of considerable authority in the army.
The most famous of the Mongol siege engineers was Guo Kan, a Chinese engineer who served under Genghis Khan and who was responsible for the design of the siege weapons used in the conquest of the Khwarezmian Empire. Guo Kan was reportedly a brilliant engineer, and he was credited with the design of the trebuchets that were used in the sieges of Bukhara and Samarkand. Guo Kan was eventually killed in battle, but his legacy lived on in the siege weapons of the Mongol army.
Sources
- Timothy May, The Mongol Art of War (Barnsley, 2007).
- David Morgan, The Mongols (2nd ed., Oxford, 2007).
- Christopher I. Beckwith, Empires of the Silk Road (Princeton, 2009).