The battle tactics and strategies of the Mongol army were among the most sophisticated in the medieval world. The Mongols used a wide variety of tactics, including the feigned retreat, the envelopment, the hammer and anvil, the ambush, and the use of intelligence. The Mongols also used a sophisticated system of signals and communication, and they used terror as a weapon. The combination of tactics, strategies, and psychological warfare gave the Mongols a decisive advantage over most of their enemies, and it was one of the keys to the success of the Mongol military.
The Mongol battle tactics were developed over a long period, from the wars of unification in the late twelfth and early thirteenth centuries to the conquests of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. The tactics were refined by a number of great Mongol commanders, including Subutai, Jebe, and Mukhali, and they were the model for the armies of the khanates for centuries.
The Feigned Retreat
The most famous of the Mongol battle tactics was the feigned retreat, in which the Mongols pretended to flee, drawing the enemy into a pursuit, and then turned and counterattacked. The tactic was particularly effective against heavy cavalry, which was not as maneuverable as the Mongol horse, and it was one of the keys to the success of the Mongol campaigns in Eastern Europe and the Middle East.
The feigned retreat was based on a deep understanding of the psychology of the enemy. The Mongols knew that most armies would pursue a retreating enemy, particularly if the retreat appeared disorganized. The Mongols also knew that the pursuit would often lead the enemy to break formation, and that the broken formation would be vulnerable to a counterattack. The tactic was, in effect, a way of using the enemy’s own aggressiveness against him, and it was one of the most effective tactics in the Mongol arsenal.
The most famous example of the feigned retreat was the Battle of Mohi in 1241, in which the Mongols pretended to flee from the Hungarian army, drawing the Hungarians into a pursuit across a bridge over the Sajó River. The Hungarians, in their eagerness to pursue the retreating Mongols, broke formation and crowded onto the bridge, where they were attacked from the front and from the rear. The result was a devastating defeat for the Hungarians, and the battle established the Mongols as the dominant military power in Eastern Europe.
The Envelopment
The second major Mongol battle tactic was the envelopment, in which the Mongols surrounded the enemy army and attacked from multiple directions. The tactic was based on the superior mobility of the Mongol horse, and it required a high degree of coordination and discipline on the part of the Mongol commanders. The tactic was particularly effective against large, slow-moving armies, which could be surrounded and then destroyed in detail.
The most famous example of the envelopment was the Battle of Legnica in 1241, in which the Mongols surrounded a combined Polish-German-Moravian army and attacked it from multiple directions. The battle was a decisive victory for the Mongols, and it established the Mongols as the dominant military power in Central Europe. The battle was also significant for the death of Henry II the Pious, the Duke of Silesia, who was killed in the battle, and it marked the end of Polish resistance to the Mongol invasion.
The Hammer and Anvil
The third major Mongol battle tactic was the hammer and anvil, in which one part of the army engaged the enemy while another part attacked from a different direction. The tactic was based on the superior mobility of the Mongol horse, and it required a high degree of coordination between the different units of the army. The tactic was particularly effective against armies that were already engaged in combat, which could be attacked from the rear or the flank while they were occupied with the main attack.
The most famous example of the hammer and anvil was the Battle of the Indus in 1221, in which the Mongols used a combination of cavalry charges and archery to defeat the Khwarezmian army. The battle was a decisive victory for the Mongols, and it marked the end of the Khwarezmian resistance. The battle was also significant for the escape of Jalal al-Din, the Khwarezmian prince, who was the only major Mongol opponent to escape the battle and who would continue to resist the Mongols for several more years.
The Ambush
The fourth major Mongol battle tactic was the ambush, in which the Mongols concealed themselves near the route of the enemy’s march and then attacked the enemy when he was at his most vulnerable. The tactic was based on a sophisticated system of intelligence, and it required a high degree of coordination and discipline on the part of the Mongol commanders.
The most famous example of the ambush was the Battle of the Kalka River in 1223, in which the Mongols ambushed a combined Russian-Cuman army and inflicted a devastating defeat. The battle was a decisive victory for the Mongols, and it established the Mongols as the dominant military power in the Russian steppe. The battle was also significant for the death of several major Russian princes, and it marked the beginning of the long process of Mongol conquest of the Russian principalities.
The Use of Intelligence
The fifth major Mongol battle tactic was the use of intelligence. The Mongols used a sophisticated system of spies, scouts, and informants to gather information on the enemy, and they used this information to plan their campaigns and to identify the weaknesses of the enemy. The system was, in effect, a precursor of the modern system of military intelligence, and it was one of the keys to the success of the Mongol military.
The Mongols also used intelligence to identify the political divisions of the enemy, and they often exploited these divisions to gain allies or to weaken the enemy. The Mongols were particularly skilled at using diplomacy to divide their enemies, and they often sent envoys to potential allies in the enemy camp. The use of intelligence was, in effect, a way of multiplying the strength of the Mongol army, and it was one of the keys to the success of the Mongol military.
The Use of Terror
The sixth major Mongol battle tactic was the use of terror. The Mongols used terror as a weapon, and they deliberately spread stories of the destruction of cities that had resisted them in order to encourage other cities to surrender. The use of terror was based on a sophisticated understanding of the psychology of the enemy, and it was often more effective than military force.
The use of terror was particularly effective in the early phases of the Mongol conquests, when the Mongols were still unknown to most of their enemies. The stories of the destruction of cities like Bukhara, Samarkand, and Merv spread quickly, and they encouraged other cities to surrender without a fight. The use of terror was, in effect, a way of multiplying the strength of the Mongol army, and it was one of the keys to the success of the Mongol military.
The Subutai and the Great Commanders
The Mongol battle tactics were developed and refined by a number of great Mongol commanders, of whom Subutai was the most famous. Subutai was the son of a blacksmith, and he rose through the ranks of the Mongol army to become the most successful general in the history of the Mongol Empire. Subutai led the Mongol invasions of Eastern Europe in the 1240s, and he was the mastermind of the Battle of Mohi and the Battle of Legnica. Subutai was a master of the feigned retreat, the envelopment, and the use of intelligence, and he was one of the most influential military commanders in the history of the world.
The other great Mongol commanders included Jebe, who was the co-commander of the western campaigns in the 1220s and who was the mastermind of the Battle of the Kalka River; Mukhali, who was the chief administrator of North China under Genghis Khan and who played a major role in the conquest of the Jin Dynasty; and Kublai Khan, who was the founder of the Yuan Dynasty and who led the final conquest of the Song Dynasty in southern China.
Sources
- Timothy May, The Mongol Art of War (Barnsley: Pen & Sword, 2007), ch. 4–5 — the best modern treatment of Mongol tactics.
- David Morgan, The Mongols (2nd ed., Oxford: Blackwell, 2007), ch. 2.
- Christopher I. Beckwith, Empires of the Silk Road (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2009), ch. 6.
- John Man, Genghis Khan: Life, Death and Legacy (London: HarperCollins, 2004), ch. 8, 12.
- René Grousset, The Empire of the Steppes (New Brunswick: Rutgers, 1970), ch. 7.
- Stephen R. Turnbull, Mongol Warrior 1200–1350 (Oxford: Osprey, 2003).