The Mongol social structure was based on a complex system of clans, tribes, and confederations, with a clear hierarchy of authority and a well-defined division of labor. The social structure was a central feature of the Mongol way of life, and it was a major factor in the success of the Mongol state.
The Mongol social structure was significantly transformed by Genghis Khan, who broke the power of the old aristocratic lineages and replaced them with a new system based on the decimal military organization. The new system was a major social revolution, and it had the effect of transferring the loyalty of the warriors from the clans to the khan.
The Tribal Organization
The tribal organization was the basis of the Mongol social structure. The basic unit of the tribal organization was the patrilineal clan, the oboq, which traced descent from a common male ancestor and which was the basis of identity and obligation. The clans were grouped into tribes, and the tribes were grouped into larger confederations.
The tribal organization was based on a complex system of customary law, which regulated marriage, inheritance, hospitality, and conflict. The customary law was enforced by the chiefs of the clans, who were responsible for the conduct of their members. The chiefs were assisted by councils of elders, who advised on questions of war, migration, and dispute settlement.
The tribal organization was significantly transformed by Genghis Khan, who broke the power of the old aristocratic lineages and replaced them with a new system based on the decimal military organization. The new system was a major social revolution, and it had the effect of transferring the loyalty of the warriors from the clans to the khan.
The Class System
The class system of the Mongol Empire was based on a clear hierarchy of authority and a well-defined division of labor. The most important of the classes were:
- The ruling class, which consisted of the Borjigin lineage and the other aristocratic families
- The warrior class, which consisted of the professional warriors who served in the imperial army
- The herder class, which consisted of the pastoral nomads who raised the livestock
- The craftsman class, which consisted of the craftsmen who produced the goods
- The religious specialist class, which consisted of the shamans and other religious figures
- The slave class, which consisted of the prisoners of war and their descendants
The class system was based on a combination of birth and achievement. The ruling class was based on birth, but the warrior class and the craftsman class were based on achievement. The system was not, however, rigid: a talented warrior could rise through the ranks and become a member of the ruling class, and a talented craftsman could be promoted to the warrior class.
The class system was particularly important in the Yuan Dynasty in China, where the four-class system was used to organize the population. The four classes were the Mongols, the “semu” (or “various sorts”), the Han Chinese of North China, and the Han Chinese of South China. The four-class system was a major source of tension in the Yuan Dynasty, and it was eventually one of the causes of the Red Turban Rebellion that overthrew the dynasty.
The Role of Women
The role of women in the Mongol social structure was relatively high by the standards of the medieval world, and women played important roles in the political, economic, and religious life of the Mongol people. The Mongols were, by the standards of the medieval world, a relatively egalitarian society, and women had a number of rights that were unusual in the medieval world.
The most important of the rights of women was the right to inherit property. The Mongol customary law allowed women to inherit property, and the property was divided among the heirs according to a fixed formula. The right to inherit property was unusual in the medieval world, and it was a major factor in the relative independence of Mongol women.
The most important of the women in Mongol history was Sorghaghtani Beki, the wife of Tolui and the mother of Möngke, Kublai, Hulagu, and Ariq Böke. Sorghaghtani was a Nestorian Christian, and she was one of the most important political figures of the thirteenth century. She was the chief adviser of her sons, and she played a major role in the Toluid Civil War of 1260-1264.
The Role of Slaves
The role of slaves in the Mongol social structure was significant. The Mongols practiced slavery, and the slaves were drawn from the prisoners of war and their descendants. The slaves were typically used as domestic servants, as craftsmen, or as agricultural workers, and the slaves were an important part of the Mongol economy.
The slaves were, however, treated relatively well by the standards of the medieval world. The slaves were given a number of rights, including the right to marry, the right to own property, and the right to participate in the religious life of the community. The slaves were also allowed to buy their freedom, and the freed slaves were allowed to integrate into the Mongol society.
The Legacy of the Mongol Social Structure
The legacy of the Mongol social structure is visible in a number of ways. The most obvious is in the modern Mongolian culture, where the traditional social structure continues to play a role in the daily life. The other examples include the modern Inner Mongolian culture, where the traditional social structure is also a major feature of the cultural life.
The legacy of the Mongol social structure is also visible in the modern political traditions of the former Mongol territories. The most obvious is in the modern Russian state, where the political traditions of the Golden Horde were a major influence on the development of the Russian state. The other examples include the modern Chinese state, where the political traditions of the Yuan Dynasty were a major influence on the development of the Chinese state.
Sources
- Jack Weatherford, The Secret History of the Mongol Queens (New York, 2010).
- Anatoly M. Khazanov, Nomads and the Outside World (2nd ed., Madison, 1994).
- David Morgan, The Mongols (2nd ed., Oxford, 2007).