The Mongol administration in China was a major synthesis of Mongol, Chinese, and Central Asian administrative traditions. The Mongols adopted some Chinese administrative practices — including the province (xing) system, the Censorate (yushitai), the Hanlin Academy for ceremonial drafting, and a bilingual administrative vocabulary that put Mongol and Chinese on equal footing. The Mongols famously did not adopt the Chinese civil-service examination, which they abolished in 1238 and only intermittently restored. The Mongols also adopted a number of Central Asian administrative practices, including the use of paper money (inherited from the Song and Jin), the yam postal relay, and the tümen decimal military organization.
The Mongol administration was one of the most complex administrative systems in the medieval world, and it was a major factor in the success of the Yuan Dynasty. The administration was based on a four-class system, in which the Mongols were at the top, the non-Han “semu” (or “various sorts”) were below them, the Han Chinese of North China were below the “semu,” and the Han Chinese of South China were at the bottom.
The Four-Class System
The four-class system was one of the most distinctive features of the Mongol administration in China. The system was established by Kublai Khan in 1271, and it was a major source of tension in the Yuan Dynasty. The four classes were, in descending order:
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The Mongols, who were at the top of the system. The Mongols were the ruling class, and they held the highest positions in the imperial government. The Mongols were also given preferential treatment in the legal system, with lighter punishments for the same crimes.
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The “semu,” or “various sorts,” who were below the Mongols. The “semu” were a diverse group of non-Han peoples, including the Uyghurs, the Tibetans, the Koreans, the Persians, and the various Central Asian peoples. The “semu” held middle-level positions in the imperial government, and they were also given preferential treatment in the legal system.
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The Han Chinese of North China, who were below the “semu.” The Han Chinese of North China held lower-level positions in the imperial government, and they were given less preferential treatment in the legal system. The Han Chinese of North China were, however, considered to be more reliable than the Han Chinese of South China, and they were given more opportunities for advancement.
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The Han Chinese of South China, who were at the bottom of the system. The Han Chinese of South China held the lowest positions in the imperial government, and they were given the least preferential treatment in the legal system. The Han Chinese of South China were considered to be the most disloyal of the four classes, and they were given the fewest opportunities for advancement.
The four-class system was a major source of tension in the Yuan Dynasty, and it was eventually one of the causes of the Red Turban Rebellion that overthrew the dynasty in 1368. The system was, however, also a major factor in the success of the Yuan Dynasty, and it was a major reason why the Mongols were able to maintain control of China for almost a century.
The Imperial Bureaucracy
The imperial bureaucracy of the Yuan Dynasty was based on the Chinese model, with a number of important Mongol modifications. The bureaucracy was organized into a number of ministries, each of which was responsible for a specific area of government. The ministries were headed by ministers, who were appointed by the emperor and who were responsible for the administration of the ministries.
The most important of the ministries was the Ministry of Personnel, which was responsible for the appointment and promotion of officials. The Ministry of Revenue was responsible for the collection of taxes and the management of the imperial finances. The Ministry of Rites was responsible for the conduct of religious ceremonies and the maintenance of diplomatic relations. The Ministry of War was responsible for the management of the military. The Ministry of Justice was responsible for the administration of the legal system. The Ministry of Works was responsible for the construction and maintenance of public works.
The imperial bureaucracy was based on a system of civil service examinations, which were used to select officials for the bureaucracy. The examinations were suspended by the Mongols for a long period, and they were eventually restored in 1315. The restored examinations were, however, less rigorous than the examinations of the Song Dynasty, and they were not the primary method of selecting officials.
The Legal System
The legal system of the Yuan Dynasty was based on a synthesis of Mongol and Chinese legal traditions. The Mongols adopted a number of Chinese legal practices, including the use of the Chinese legal code, the use of the Chinese courts, and the use of the Chinese system of punishment. The Mongols also retained a number of Mongol legal practices, including the use of the Yassa code of law, the use of the Mongol courts, and the use of the Mongol system of punishment.
The legal system was based on a four-tier structure, with the emperor at the top, the senior ministers below the emperor, the provincial governors below the senior ministers, and the local officials at the bottom. The legal system was responsible for the administration of justice, the collection of taxes, and the maintenance of public order.
The legal system was a major source of tension in the Yuan Dynasty, and the system was often criticized by the Chinese for its preferential treatment of the Mongols. The system was, however, also a major factor in the success of the Yuan Dynasty, and the system was eventually reformed by the Yuan emperors in the early fourteenth century.
The Economic System
The economic system of the Yuan Dynasty was based on a synthesis of Mongol, Chinese, and Central Asian economic traditions. The Mongols adopted a number of Chinese economic practices, including the use of the Chinese currency, the use of the Chinese banking system, and the use of the Chinese tax system. The Mongols also adopted a number of Central Asian economic practices, including the use of paper money, the use of the postal relays, and the use of the trade routes.
The economic system of the Yuan Dynasty was based on a number of major industries, including agriculture, manufacturing, and trade. The agricultural sector was the largest sector of the economy, and it was based on the cultivation of rice, wheat, and other crops. The manufacturing sector was also important, and it was based on the production of silk, porcelain, and other goods. The trade sector was the most dynamic sector of the economy, and it was based on the trade routes that connected China to the rest of Eurasia.
The economic system of the Yuan Dynasty was, in many ways, a major success. The Yuan Dynasty was the wealthiest and most populous state in East Asia, and it was a major center of the global economy. The economic system was, however, also a major source of tension, and the system was eventually undermined by a series of financial crises, natural disasters, and political instability.
Sources
- John W. Chaffee, Banners and the Borderlands in Yuan China (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Asia Center, 2012) — the best modern treatment of the Yuan administrative system.
- Morris Rossabi, Khubilai Khan: His Life and Times (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988).
- Herbert Franke and Denis Twitchett, eds., The Cambridge History of China, Vol. 6: Alien Regimes and Border States, 907–1368 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994).
- David Morgan, The Mongols (2nd ed., Oxford: Blackwell, 2007), ch. 6.
- Thomas T. Allsen, Commodity and Exchange in the Mongol Empire (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001) — for the Central Asian administrative practices.